Promoting Mental Health And Well Being Families Social Work Essay

Promoting Mental Health And Well Being Families Social Work Essay According to the World Health Organisation mental health is a state of well-being in which the individual realises his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community. According to the North Western Health Board (NWHB) mental health affects our feelings towards others and it also effects how at ease we are with ourselves. Mental health also affects some of our everyday skills, such as interacting with others around us; maintain relationships with people, whether it is intimate relationships or family relationships. Mental health can also affect the way we deal with certain events in our lives. Changes such as bereavement in a persons life or losing or starting a job can have different have a different effect on different people at different points in time. According to Barry Jenkins there are three levels at which the protective and risk factors work. These three levels are known as Individual, social and structural. According to the NWHB each level is supported and reinforcing each level, thus strengthening them. By strengthening human beings we are trying to increase self-confidence and develop their abilities and skills, such as interaction with other people and developing skills to help sustain relationships. Protective factors The following protective factors are based on an individual level. Some of the protective factors are having good coping skills, having good social skills Good Coping Skills If a person is good at dealing and handling certain situations in life, this can be a huge help in relation to combatting mental illnesses. If a person can manage to deal with a certain situation which they may be experiencing without getting too worked up or letting it get them down, this can have a positive effect on their life. If a person can be optimistic about a situation and try to look on the bright side of things and realise that they will come out the other end and that things will get more positive and that they may have a brighter future in front of them, this can only have a positive effect on somebodys life. Social Skills A person that has the ability to fit into society and get to know people no matter where they go will hopefully never really experience isolation. Take for example a person moving to a new area that doesnt know anybody that lives in the area. If they have the skills to integrate themselves into that society and get to know the community they will more than likely be welcomed by members of that society. If a person makes themselves known within the community and gets involved in things going on within the community, isolation will not be a problem for them. For somebody that may be experiencing isolation this can have huge knock on effects on their mental health. If a person feels that they are alone and have nobody to turn to, this can lead to mental illnesses such as depression. I will now discuss some of the protective factors which are based on social level. Some of these are positive experiences of early attachment and positive attachment to family. Positive Experiences of Early Attachment If an individual whilst growing up and while they were children had positive experiences throughout their childhood, in relation to how close they were to their parents and if they had a good relationship can have huge effects on a person later in life. If a person has had a bad relationship with their parents this can have a huge knock on effect later in life. If a person feels that they were not accepted by their parents as a child this may lead to somebody suffering from depression as they may not feel wanted or accepted into society. They may feel that nobody is there for them. If they have had a bad relationship with their parents, they may also find it quite hard to develop an intimate relationship with somebody, as they may be afraid of having such a close relationship with somebody, as they have never experienced a relationship like this before throughout their lifetime. Attachment to family How close an individual is to their family is based on a social level according to Barry Jenkins. How close one may be to their family can have effects on one life. If a person knows that they have their family around them no matter what and that they will be there for them through the good times and the bad then the person knows that they are not on their own on life. They know that their family will stand by them no matter what. People experience so many problems in life, so it is good for an individual to know that no matter what they have a group of people around them that love and care for them, and will support them through lifes challenges. Supportive Social relationships Supportive relationships, whether it be family relationships or intimate relationships is another strengthening factor which can protect mental health. If a person knows that somebody is always there for them, through the good times and the bad and to help them carry heavy burdens which they will come across throughout life, is a huge help to them. I think right now throughout society, a large number of people are carrying heavy burdens in relation to unemployment and bills to be paid. If a person knows that they have someone to lean on and to help them along the way in life this can be a huge weight lifted off their shoulders. If a person has somebody that is supporting them, this means that they have somebody to talk to and discuss any problems that they may be experiencing. Something as simple as just sitting down and talking to someone about the problems you are experiencing in life can help protect a persons mental health. A problem may not seem as bad after discussing it with s omeone. As the saying goes a problem shared is a problem halved. I will now discuss some of the protective factors at a structural level. Some of these protective factors are economic security and employment. Employment Economic Security As we all know we are currently experiencing a severe fiscal crisis in this country. A lot of people are currently unemployed. According to the Irish National Organisation of the Unemployed (INOU) statistics in October of this year 420172 people were unemployed. This is a huge proportion of people in our society that are unemployed. Unemployment is a serious issue and is more than likely one of the leading causes of mental health problems in todays society. For those that are currently unemployed they are struggling to pay bills and meet repayments on mortgages. This can be a very worrying time for people and can lead to mental health problems. It can sometimes lead to people taking their own lives as they are unable to deal with the everyday realities of life and can see no other way out. In a recent article published by the Irish Examiner in June of this year stated that the economy and the current state that it is in is interconnected to the rise in young men taking their own live s. The newspaper article took figures from the Central Statistics Office (CSO) from 2009. The report stated that 443 males took their own life in 2009. This figure had increased by 15% from 2008. Approximately 40% of these men were out of work and 32% of them had previously worked in the building industry, according to Ella Arensman from the National Suicide Research Foundation (NSRF). It is clear to see there is a strong connection with men taking their own life and unemployment. I will now discuss some of the risk factors in relation to mental health. Some of these risk factors are school failure, social isolation and abuse and violence. School failure According to Barry Jenkins School failure is one of the risk factors in relation to mental health. School failure is based on a structural level. School failure can have negative impacts on people lives when it comes to looking for employment later in life. School achievement may not seem important but as people get older they realise how important it is. If a person fails again and again when it comes to trying to get a job this may have huge effects on their mental health. Social Isolation If a person is experiencing social isolation it can have huge effects on their mental health. Take example an elderly person that may have lead a very independent life ends up in long term care. This may lead to loneliness. If a person is in long term care they may be very dependent on someone to look after them and help them with their everyday lives. This can be a big change in a persons life and could possibly lead to depression in the long run. Abuse and Violence Abuse and violence can have a huge effect on a persons mental health. Emotional abuse such as bullying as we have seen over the last few weeks can have severe effects on a persons life. Over the last few weeks numerous young people under the age of eighteen have taken their own lives because of bullying. Obviously the bullying had a huge effect on their mental health and they could see no other way out. Conclusion From my essay it is clear to see that there are numerous strengthening and risk factors in relation to mental health. We as a nation and as individuals should be concentrating on the protective factors. In a report published by the Health Service Executive (HSE) it mentions that the World Health Organisation stated in a report that General Practitioners spend 30% of their time with patients that are dealing with a mental illness. This makes it clear to us that there are a huge number of people are dealing with a mental illness. According to the HSE Ireland has tried to increase peoples awareness of mental health and change their attitudes towards it. They have done this by developing documents such as A Vision for Change 2006 which is based on mental illnesses and mental health. A document titled Reach Out 2005 has being developed in relation to preventing suicide. These documents may change peoples perception of mental illness and they may not look at it in such a negative light. Th ere is a huge stigma attached to mental illness, so hopefully in time this stigma will no longer exist. Mental health can have serious effects on peoples lives. People should not feel ashamed if they have a mental illness. They should not have a stigma attached to them because of this mental illness. People need to be more open minded and not look down on people who are experiencing an illness in relation to their mental health. Hopefully in time the supports that people need will be readily available to them when they need it. A mental illness can be life changing, so for people to know that they have supports available to them on their doorstops can make a huge difference and can help them overcome their mental illness. Reference List Health Service Executive (2007) Mental Health in Ireland: Awareness and Attitudes, Dublin: Health Service Executive Margaret M. Barry and Rachel Jenkins (2007) Implementing Mental Health Promotion, Philadelphia: Elesevier The Irish Examiner (2012) Suicide rise is linked to economy, says study, [Online], Available: http://www.irishexaminer.com/archives/2012/0602/ireland/suicide-rise-is-linked-to-economy-says-study-195996.html [Accessed 21st November 2012] The Irish National Organisation of the Unemployed (2012) Live Register, Figures for the Year 2012 to date by gender, [Online], available: http://www.inou.ie/policy/statistics/liveregister/_figures=national_year=2012 [Accessed 21st November 2012] The North Western Health Board (2005) The North western Health Board Strategy Action Plan for the promotion of Mental Health, Dublin: The North Western Health Board The World Health Organisation (2005) Promoting Mental Health, Concepts, Emerging Evidence and Practice. Switzerland: World Health Organisation Tom, OG. (2012) Promoting Mental Health and Wellbeing, SPL308: Promoting Mental Health and Wellbeing in Families, National University of Ireland Galway, Unpublished

Prostate Cancer in African American Men Essay

Prostate Cancer is the gland below a man’s bladder that produces fluid for semen. Prostate cancer is common among older men. Prostate cancer is a silent killer, and because it grows slowly, many men have no idea it’s there It is rare in men younger than forty. Risk factors for developing prostate cancer include being over sixty five years of age, family history, being African American, and some genetic changes. There is an estimated of 241,740 new cases and 28,170 deaths from prostate cancer in the United States in 2012 (National Cancer Institute, 2011). Prostate cancer is the second most common cancer among men, behind skin cancer, and the second leading cause of cancer deaths among men especially in African American men. one out of six men will be diagnosed with prostate cancer during their lifetime. For example, if you’re at home having a cookout with 11 of your friends, it’s likely that two of you at some point in your lives will be diagnosed with pros tate cancer. and If you’re an African-American man, those odds increase to nearly one in five. Prostate cancer affects African American men twice as often as Caucasian men; the mortality rate among African American is also twice as high. African American men have the highest rate of prostate cancer of any ethic group in the world. In the African American community men are at high risk due to low socioeconomic status, and not getting cancer screening because of no health insurance. With the increased amount of men being diagnosed each year it is shocking that many men still avoid visiting the doctor because it makes them uncomfortable and they are afraid of what the results will be even when some clinics give free prostate cancer screening. While prostate cancer screening test can have abnormal results even when cancer is not present, it is important for men to have prostate screening done.prostate cancer is usually detected through screening, and there are two methods for early detection. The prostate-specific antigen test (PSA) is used, but there are many factors that can inf luence the outcome of the PSA test. Medications such as antihistamines, physical exertion or recent ejaculation can raise a PSA level. Another test for early detection of prostate cancer has been the digital rectal exam (DRE). Although, DRE is a better method for early detection, it is also a hindrance among men, particularly African-American men, to screening and early detection According to American Cancer Society (ACS) and American Urological Association (AUA), the PSA and DRE should be offered annually for all men beginning at age 50. However, they also recommend that African-American men with a family history of prostate cancer should begin testing by age 45. Early intervention is the key to a 5 year survival rate. Prognosis of prostate cancer diagnosed at an early stage is noted as being optimistic. Despite these credible statistics, free prostate cancer screening and early detection remains a problem area for many health care practitioners when it comes to the African American population (Plowden 2009) Madeline Leininger’s Sunrise Model has been used in many studies over the past twenty years. Between 1999 and 2008, over 200 citations of articles were noted using Leininger Theory (McEwen, 2011). She postulated that nurses should attempt to increase knowledge related to the care of people who value their cultural heritage and way of life (McEwen, 2011). The Leininger Sunrise Model of cultural diversity is used to obtain compliance with prostate cancer screening among African-American men; the goal has been to build a relationship of cooperation between clients and health care workers. Educating the men as well as examining their fears and anxieties is useful in removing barriers of resistance and gaining trust, thus empowering the client (McEwen, 2011). The Health Belief Model (HBM) â€Å"postulates a person’s perception of disease threat and benefits of taking action will predetermine taking action† (Rivers, 2009). The HBM is used to determine the African American male understanding of prostate cancer and to identify factors that would motivate that populatio n to seek screening and treatment of prostate cancer. The HBM has been used to design intervention to educate as well as facilitate access to screening and treatment (Rivers, 2009). Leininger’s Theory of cultural care diversity is a middle range theory that is based upon the major concepts of culture, culture care and understanding the differences as well as the similarities to transcultural human care. Her other major concepts of transcultural care are, caring, and ethic views, the system of health care, the professional system of care and culturally congruent nursing care. (McEwen, 2011) The strength of Leininger Theory lies in the fact that it is a holistic theory seeking to cover both the diversity and universality of nursing care concepts. Caring aspects within and between cultures must include the acknowledgement of the similarities and differences. The theory has been widely used within the credibility and confirm ability of data gained from research (McGee, 1994). Because the Leininger Theory places emphasis on cultural s ensitivity and cultural congruence, it can be said that cultural knowledge will improve care. However, because the approach fails to take into account a political and structural inequality of minorities and focuses on differences and deficits, it can be construed that the culture itself is the problem. The possibility of reinforcing stereotypes and increasing the gap between provider and patient may actually make the care aspect less than culturally safe (Orià ¡, 2005). Leininger Theory can be used in a wide range of modalities when considering the problem of prostate screening. When examining the focus of this clinical problem i.e., how to get increased participation from a high risk group to prostate cancer screening, Plowden reached several conclusions that are applicable to today’s practice for advance nurse practitioners. For example, African-American men were more likely to seek screening and participate in the treatment process if 1.) There was a perceived susceptibility to prostate cancer and that threat was perceived as severe in life threatening or disabling . 2.) There were perceived benefits to the screening such as early detection and accurate diagnosis. 3.) There were no perceived barriers. 4.) Sufficient triggers need to exist to motivate behavior (Plowden, 2009). When applying these findings to advanced nurse practitioners’ practices, it can be said that men in the high risk groups must first be educated on the risks of prostate cancer. They need to understand the implications involved with failure to be screened. Early detection and accurate diagnosis are very important to the 5 year survival post diagnosis. Screening is essential to the quality of life for a person diagnosed with prostate cancer. For example, lifestyle changes would have to be made after a radical prostectomy versus a chemo radiation treatment of a localized slow growing tumor. When health care professionals can successfully manage to remove or go around barriers, whether real or perceived, the goal of seeking medical intervention is improved. Health care professionals can attempt to established sufficient triggers so that the behavior can be motivated to attain compliance to screening. The advanced nurse practitioner’s challenge will be to first establish trust and reputation as a caregiver who cares and is approachable; educate the population of the high risk group to the benefits of early detection versus late discovery; provide easy access to screening and the follow up phase of the intervention; and maintain confidentiality. Peer group discussions with professionals have shown to aid in getting better compliance (Plowden, 2009). The African-American males’ decision making process when considering prostate cancer screening is influenced greatly by cultural mores and beliefs. These cultural beliefs often lead to a lower rate of compliance to free screening versus all other races i.e. Caucasians, etc. Leisiniger’s cultural diversity theory can be used to effectively educate and increase compliance by teaching practitioners ways to overcome these cultural barriers. By following the concepts of care, caring, and understanding feelings of self, as well as the feelings of others, it is possible to overcome cultural barriers. Works Cited Cherath, Lata, et al. â€Å"Prostate Cancer.† The Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine. Ed. Laurie J. Fundukian. 4th ed. Vol. 5. Detroit: Gale, 2011. 3578-3584. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7 Dec. 2012. â€Å"LATEST RESEARCH: Faster Prostate Cancer Growth In Black Men?.† Prostate Disorders (2011): 31. Health Source – Consumer Edition. Web. 7 Dec. 2012 â€Å"Prostate Cancer.† National Cancer Institute. SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975-2009 (Vintage 2009 Populations), National Cancer Institute. Bethesda, MD, n.d. Web. 7 Dec. 2012. .

Educational Technology Essay

With the passage of time, the advances of technology are making their presence felt in every walk of life from space exploration to clean a room. The central though behind these technological advances is to make life more comfortable, efficient, and safe. As such technology is an integral part of daily workaday life. Newer forms of technology are being introduced with improved rates of efficiency, safety, and comfort. In this regard, inclusion of technology in education has also become the hard norm of the present educational system of such a country as the United States of America with the same focus as quoted above. Henceforth, all important areas of educational development have been hinged with the inclusion of technology. One such area of focus today, with regard to the inclusion of technology in education, is the educational development of the disabled and other disadvantage students’ enhanced learning. The present paper examines in detail the inclusion of technology in education with relation to the learning of disabled and disadvantaged students. The paper first of all discusses the present literature on the present state of educational technology and disabled learners; furthermore, the present paper specifically examines studies conducted in the same area to investigate the legitimacy on educational technology inclusion to teach the disabled students, say, English language, and see what difference the technology inclusion makes upon the learning of the students. Literature Review In the past several decades, changing perspectives on the use of technology inclusion in education for the disabled students has caused the curricular guidance to undergo changes that are significant on their own. It was in the time of the 1970s and the 1980s that parents and teachers came to realize the vision that graduating students with disabilities could now go on living and working in the general community environment with some support that differed according to individual. This vision, then, bypassed the shelters of workshops, centers for day treatment, and other massive settings for residential purposes which were indispensable for the previous students. This revolutionary vision then gave birth to â€Å"the development of curricula that were relevant to students’ functioning to everyday life† (Davern, et.al, 2001). In addition to the above, the Individual with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1997) also paved the way for the educators to look for technology inclusion that can boost up learning in the disabled students; hence the premise of this act is that: A free and appropriate public education will be provided for all children with special needs. IDEA 97 emphasizes the participation of students with disabilities in the general curriculum and requires that Individualized Education Program (IEP) teams make many decisions that support and encourage student performance in the general curriculum and general education classroom (Robinson, et.al, 2002). However, when it comes to the participation of the disabled students in the learning of more complex cognitive content (say reading comprehension or learning vocabulary, and so on) with the mainstream education, with their peers, it is seen as an obstacle that these students show a difference of learning from their peers. Hence there are various involvements made by researchers. These interventions focus on overcoming these differences among the two types of learners. â€Å"Curriculum-based assessment†, â€Å"Direct instruction curriculum design†, and â€Å"learning strategies Deshier† are some of them (Carnine, 1989). Today, as such, technology is fast becoming the norm of the area of educating the learners with disabilities. The times of the twenty first century has given rapid rise to technology integration in education. Henceforward, as Dr. Frank B. Withrow, Director of Development Able Company Washington D.C. (2000) notes that â€Å"Technology predictions for the 21st century include sensory prosthetic devices for disabled people. This may be one of the most significant factors in providing all children an equal and appropriate education.† He further points out that â€Å"Cochlear implants are already providing many hard of hearing youngsters with functional hearing.† Moreover, â€Å"Speech synthesizers give voice to mute individuals. New developments in microelectronic lenses may enable a large number of visually disabled people to read printed books† (Frank, 2000) However, it is another thing to investigate the integration of technology and its feasibility with the production: effectiveness of technology with regard to the learning rate of the students with disabilities. In the later part of the paper I would examine the role of technology in relation to this very theme. I would discuss the role of the educational software for the special education. Educational Software and Special Students Today, like all other areas of education, special education is also influenced by the introduction of newer and newer software that provide the educators the opportunities to better teach the disabled students so that their learning can be worth it. Since commercial software for education usually shapes the center of instruction which is technology-based in special education (also for general classroom education), there is a very rapid race among the educational authorities to obtain the most effective and result-oriented software. However, with the advances made in this area, there are certain concerns raised by the educators and researchers about the feasibility of these software packages with regard to effective learning among the disabled students. In this connection, the most common practice found among the educators is that they â€Å"rely on experts in commercial businesses to produce quality educational software for classroom use, with the assumption that the software has been designed to meet the unique learning needs of the population of students for whom it is targeted† (Boone, et.al, 2000). In other words, the consumers of the software assume that the software was properly designed and developed with a population being the focus of that software, for example, students with disabilities, junior school students, students learning English as a second language, and so forth. The net result that these consumers anticipate from the software obtained, as such, is that it will help them improve the learning capabilities of their students – in our case students with learning disabilities and disadvantaged students. On the contrary, Boone et al. (p. 109, 2000) observe that though many of the software developers are aware of the fact that consulting educational experts and researchers is way important in order to develop a result-oriented, population-targeted software, â€Å"some companies still develop software without taking into account education factors that may affect learning† (Boone, et.al, 2000). They point out three major areas regarding such software development for the disabled students, which were major concerns of the educators: 1) The developed software did not have a theoretical base for its formation; 2) There is an overemphasis on such technical aspects of the software as high graphic designs and audio add-ons; and 3) The software development manifested an improper approach toward educational concerns. With these three major concerns, Boone et al. (2000) also list three major areas – investigated in a Delphi research study – which, according to educators, the educational software for the disabled students was proved to be lacking. These areas are: 1) The investigation revealed that software lacked an incorporation or association of higher-level of thinking; 2) The software also lacked a grounding in the educational research and pedagogical investigation of the related teaching content to the disabled students; 3) The last major area of lacking of the educational software for the disabled students was that the software lacked the inclusion of a number of different level skills which can be used to effectively meet an individual’s specific needs. Therefore, Forcier, 1999 (as cited in Boone et al. p. 01, 2000) notes that because of these so complex issues with regard to the educational software, it seems unclear as to which degree such educational improvisation is actually meeting the needs of the educators/teachers and their students. (Boone, et.al, 2000) Evaluation of Software Boone et al. (2000) point out the importance of the educational for the disabled students so that their feasibility can be put to a check. For the evaluation of an educational software, the authors state that many of the educational software developers and publishers are not providing enough information to the educators. This is a practical problem for the educators who opt for a specific software program available in the market suiting the needs of their educational context; however: (Boone, et.al, 2000) â€Å"Educators often find that software they have purchased is not adaptable, does not teach what it purports to teach, or does not support what is occurring in the classroom. For these reasons, educators must independently evaluate software by taking into consideration the following†. (Boone, et.al, 2000) 1) The educators must look for the software’s intended use by monitoring the help that the software lends to achieve their objectives; 2) Content which accompanies the software must be scrutinized; it is also seen whether or not the software has a teacher’s supplement for implementation; 3) â€Å"the instructional presentation and whether the software meets the principles of universal design (i.e., multiple representations of content, multiple means of expression and control, and multiple forms of engagement)† (Boone, et.al, 2000); 4) they should also go for software that is user-friendly: that is easy to use both by the teacher(s) and students; 5) the software should also provide considerable amount of documents and other support; 6) The software should also contain user inputs. With these areas in mind, the authors further come up with the evaluation criteria of the two kinds of evaluation of the software: formative and summative evaluation through the use of the software to make sure of its compatibility with the learning of the disabled students. I discuss both these steps of the evaluations separately so that a thorough understanding of the issue can be grasped. Formative Evaluation and Learning Software for Disabled Students To evaluate the efficiency of software for students with disabilities Boone et al (2000) state that the first and the foremost focus of the educators should be to take into account an area of the students’ learning and/ or other aspects of their life; this are can be the learning characteristics of those students; or their learning goals; or it can be the area of their social skills and goals, and so on. After this specification, the educators should put the software to test on a across-student level, that is to say: Software evaluation by students should involve a high-achieving student, a middle-achieving student, and a low-achieving student who all have a particular disability. This allows the educator to determine the software’s usability across students with a particular disability and, beforehand, to identify specific areas in the software with which particular students may need help (Boone, et.al, 2000). They also give a precaution to the educators that they should not count on the opinions of the parents of the students because it is possible that some software is not efficient to adults; however, the same is greatly enjoyed by the students.

My Impact On Student Learning Assignment On Our Weekly...

I chose to complete my impact on student learning assignment on our weekly spelling test. I choose our spelling test because we work on our words every day. I taught my students through spelling, phonics, and reading. First I had the students on the carpet to say their chunks. All their chunks were in their spelling words. Then I had my students focus on their phonics lesson for the week which was /er/, /ir/, and /ur/. I explained to the students that r is the boss and when it is standing by a vowel it makes one sound. Phonics was a very important component because the students needed to know about bossy r for five of their spelling words. After our phonics lesson, I gave the students a pretest. The pre-test had divided into two sections.†¦show more content†¦I think integrating technology into my lesson made it more engaging for my student. I noticed how they would sing the new song they learned all throughout the day. I put â€Å"Words With /er/† on the ELMO and ha d the students underline their chunks and double consonants. some of the words they recognized from their spelling list. I called on students one by one and asked them to help sound out the word. I then asked the student if the word had /er/. If the word had /er/ then the student would trace /er/. After every student had a turn the class read the words correctly. The students then took out their Basel books. I had the students point and read Kitten’s First Full Moon together again, twice. Their spelling homework was to write their words in ABC order. Wednesday, I made sure that the students chanted their chunks on the carpet. Then the students went back to their desks, they already knew what to do for spelling. I put our spelling poster up on the board had the students play Soccer with their spelling words. The phonics lesson for the day was the same as Tuesday except for wit /ir/ instead of /er/. I saw surprised that some of the students were still singing the bossy r song. When prompted all of the students could sing it. When we were reading our Basel books I would occasionally ask students to stop, point, and spell a word that was on their spelling test. For homework,Show MoreRelatedSylabus Essay3948 Words   |  16 Pagesjoy_parker@owens.edu Additional Contact Information: Reminder: You must email me using your Owens email, or I will not be able to respond to you. Catalog Description: A directed writing course, which continues the process of learning to read and critically engage various texts. Students write papers that summarize, critique, and synthesize sources, leading to researched and formally documented argumentation papers. Builds upon English 111 through its increased focus on academic argument and the processesRead Morecibm7098 Words   |  29 Pagesgeneric research methods used before analysing selected key contemporary issues in business and management. 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The Crisis of the Union 1844–1860 Teaching Resources Chapter Instructional Objectives After you have taught this chapter, your students should be able to answer the following questions: 1. How did western expansion become inextricably linked with sectional identity during the 1840s? 2. How and why did southerners change their position on slavery—first claiming it was a â€Å"necessary evil,† then defending it as a â€Å"positive good†? 3. Why did the United States fight the war with Mexico? What was the larger impact of this war? 4. How and why did divisions within American society during the 1850s bring the Second Party System to an end? 5. What choices were available to Americans in the election of 1860, and why was Abraham Lincoln’s victory significant? Chapter Annotated Outline I. Manifest Destiny: South and North A. The Independence of Texas 1. The Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 guaranteed Spanish sovereignty over Texas. 2. After winning independence from Spain in 1821, the Mexican government, short on population and cash for settling the region, encouraged settlement by Mexicans and by migrants from the United States. . As the Mexican government asserted greater political control over Texas in the mid-1830s, the Americans split into two groups: the â€Å"peace party,† led by Stephen Austin, wanted more autonomy for the province, and the â€Å"war party† wanted independence from Mexico. 4. After provoking a rebellion, the war party proclaimed the independence of Texas on March 2, 1826, and adopted a constitution legalizing slavery. 5. Vowing to put down the rebellion, Santa Anna’s army wiped out the war party’s rebel garrison that was defending the Alamo and then captured Goliad. 6. Hundreds of American adventurers influenced by press reports and lured by offers of land grants flocked to Texas to join the rebel army. Led by General Sam Houston, the war party routed the Mexicans in the Battle of San Jacinto. 7. The Mexican government abandoned efforts to reconquer Texas, but refused to accept its status as an independent republic. 8. Texans quickly voted for annexation to the United States, but Presidents Jackson and Van Buren refused to act on the issue, knowing that adding Texas as a slave state would divide the Democratic Party and the nation and almost certainly lead to war with Mexico. B. The Push to the Pacific 1. In 1845 John L. O’Sullivan coined the phrase Manifest Destiny; he felt that Americans had a right to develop the entire continent as they saw fit, which implied a sense of cultural and racial superiority. 2. The Oregon country stretched along the Pacific coast from the border with Mexican California to the border with Russian Alaska and was claimed by both Great Britain and the United States. 3. â€Å"Oregon fever† raged in 1843 as thousands, lured by reports of fine harbors, mild climate, and fertile soil, journeyed for months across the continent to the Willamette Valley. 4. By 1860 about 350,000 Americans had braved the Oregon Trail; many died en 189 190 Chapter 13: The Crisis of the Union, 1844–1860 route from disease and exposure, although relatively few died from Indian attacks. 5. Some pioneers left the Oregon Trail and traveled south along the California Trail, settling along the Sacramento River in the Mexican province of California. 6. To promote California’s development, the Mexican government took over the California missions and liberated the 20,000 Indians who worked on them, many of whom intermarried with mestizos and worked as laborers and cowboys on large cattle ranches. . The rise of cattle ranching created a new society and economy as agents from New England firms assimilated to Mexican life and married into the families of the Californios. 8. Many American migrants in California had no desire to assimilate into Mexican society and hoped for eventual annexation to the United States; however, at that time American settlers i n California were too few. C. The Fateful Election of 1844 1. The election of 1844 determined the American government’s western policy. 2. To thwart rumored British schemes of North American expansion, southern expansionists demanded the immediate annexation of Texas. 3. â€Å"Oregon fever† and Manifest Destiny were also altering the political and diplomatic landscape in the North. Responding to â€Å"Oregon conventions† that called for an end to joint occupation of the region, in 1843 a bipartisan national convention demanded that the United States seize Oregon all the way to 54 °40 north latitude. 4. Texas and Oregon became the central issues in the election of 1844; Democrats selected James K. Polk, a slave owner and expansionist who favored annexation of both Texas and Oregon. 5. The Whigs nominated Henry Clay, who again championed his American System of internal improvements, high tariffs, and national banking that begrudgingly supported the annexation of Texas. 6. Polk’s strategy of linking the issues of Texas and Oregon was successful; immediately after Polk’s victory, Democrats in Congress approved annexation of Texas by a joint resolution to bring it into the Union. II. War, Expansion, and Slavery, 1846–1850 A. The War with Mexico, 1846–1848 1. President Polk saw Texas as just the beginning; he wanted American control over all Mexican territory between Texas and the Pacific Ocean and was prepared to go to war to get it. 2. Mexico was determined to retain its territories, and when the Texas Republic accepted American statehood in 1845, Mexico broke off diplomatic relations with the United States. 3. To intimidate the Mexican government, Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to occupy the disputed lands between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande. . Polk also sent John Slidell to Mexico City on a secret diplomatic initiative to secure Mexican acceptance of the Rio Grande boundary and to buy Mexico and California; Mexican officials refused to see him. 5. Polk’s alternative plan was to foment a revolution in California that, as in Texas, would lead to an independent republic and a request for annexation. 6. In October 1845, at Polk’s request, Thomas O. Larkin encouraged the l eading Mexican residents of Monterey, California, to declare independence and support peaceful annexation. 7. Polk also ordered naval commanders to seize California’s coastal towns in case of war, and dispatched Captain John C. Fremont’s heavily armed troops deep into Mexican territory. 8. Hoping to incite an armed Mexican response, Polk ordered General Taylor to the Rio Grande; when a clash occurred, Polk blamed the Mexicans for the bloodshed and called for war. 9. Ignoring Whig pleas for a negotiated settlement, the Democratic majority in Congress voted for war with Mexico. 10. To avoid simultaneous war with Britain, the president accepted a British proposal to divide the Oregon Country at the fortyninth parallel. 1. By the end of 1846, the United States controlled much of northeastern Mexico, and American forces secured control of California in 1847. 12. Santa Anna went on the offensive, attacking Zachary Taylor’s units at Buena Vista in 1847, and only superior artillery enabled a narrow American victory. Chapter 13: The Crisis of the Union, 1844–1860 191 13. G eneral Winfield Scott’s troops seized Mexico City in September 1847; Santa Anna was overthrown and the new Mexican government agreed to make peace. B. A Divisive Victory 1. Conscience Whigs† viewed the Mexican War as a conspiracy to add new slave states in the West, and Polk’s expansionist policy split the Democrats into sectional factions. 2. The Wilmot Proviso (1846) was intended to prohibit slavery in any new territories acquired from Mexico; the Senate killed the proviso. 3. To reunite Democrats before the election, Polk and Buchanan abandoned their expansionist hopes for Mexico and agreed to take only California and New Mexico. 4. In the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) the United States agreed to pay Mexico $15 million for Texas north of the Rio Grande, New Mexico, and California. . Many northerners joined a new â€Å"freesoil† movement, viewing slavery as a threat to republicanism and the yeoman farmers (and not, as the Liberty Party believed, a s in against the natural rights of African Americans). 6. The Wilmot Proviso’s call for free soil was the first antislavery proposal to attract broad popular support. Frederick Douglass, the foremost black abolitionist, endorsed the free-soil movement, and began to lecture for William Lloyd Garrison’s American Anti-Slavery Society. 7. Democrats nominated Lewis Cass as their presidential candidate for the election of 1848; Cass was an avid expansionist who proposed squatter sovereignty and was deliberately vague on the issue of slavery in the West. 8. The Free-Soilers nominated Martin Van Buren for president; the Whigs nominated General Zachary Taylor, a slave owner who had not taken a position on slavery in the territories. 9. Taylor and his running mate Millard Fillmore won the election, but the electoral margin was thin because of the Free-Soil ticket taking New York’s vote. C. 1850: Crisis and Compromise 1. In 1848 flakes of gold were found in the Sierra Nevada foothills, and by 1849 â€Å"forty-niners† were pouring into California in search of gold. 2. The influx of settlers revived the national debate over free soil; in November 1849 Californians ratified a state constitution that prohibited slavery. 3. The admission of California as a state threatened the carefully maintained balance of slave states versus nonslave states in the Senate. 4. Southern leaders decided to block California’s entry unless the federal government guaranteed the future of slavery. . John C. Calhoun warned of possible secession by slave states and advanced the doctrine that Congress had no constitutional authority to regulate slavery in the territories. 6. Many southerners and some northern Democrats were willing to extend the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific Ocean, guaranteeing slave owners some western territory. 7. A third choice, squatter (popular) sovereignty, placed decisions about sl avery in the hands of local settlers and their territorial governments. 8. Antislavery advocates were unwilling to accept any plan for California that might involve the expansion of slavery in the territories and urged federal authorities to restrict slavery within its existing boundaries and then extinguish it completely. 9. Whigs and Democrats desperately sought a compromise to preserve the Union; Whigs organized the Compromise of 1850. 10. The Compromise included a Fugitive Slave Act to mollify the South, it admitted California as a free state and abolished the slave trade in Washington, D. C. to mollify the North, and it organized the rest of the lands acquired from Mexico into the territories of New Mexico and Utah on the basis of popular sovereignty. 11. The Compromise averted a secession crisis in 1850, but resulted in special conventions in the South; in exchange for support of the Compromise, moderate southern politicians agreed to support secession in the future if Congress abolished slavery anywhere or refused to grant statehood to a territory wi th a proslavery constitution. III. The End of the Second Party System, 1850–1858 A. Resistance to the Fugitive Slave Act 1. Under the terms of the Fugitive Slave Act, federal magistrates in the northern states 192 Chapter 13: The Crisis of the Union, 1844–1860 determined the status of alleged runaway slaves. The law denied accused blacks a jury trial and even the right to testify and it allowed the reenslavement of about two hundred fugitives (as well as some free northern blacks). 2. The plight of runaway slaves and the appearance of slave catchers aroused popular hostility in the North and Midwest, and free blacks and abolitionists defied the new law. . Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852), which evoked sympathy for slaves and outrage against slavery throughout the North, increased northern opposition to the act. 4. Northern legislatures enacted personal liberty laws, and in Ableman v. Booth (1857), the Wisconsin Supreme Court said the act violated the Constitution. 5. The U. S. Supreme Court in 1859 upheld the constitutionality of the Fugitive Slave Act, but by then the act had become a â€Å"dead letter. † B. The Political System in Decline 1. The conflict over slavery split both major political parties along sectional lines and stymied creative political leadership. 2. The Whig Party chose General Winfield Scott, but many southern Whigs refused to support Scott because northern Whigs refused to support slavery. 3. Democrats were divided at their convention and no candidate could secure the necessary two-thirds majority, so they settled on a compromise nominee, Franklin Pierce. 4. The Democrats swept the election, and their party was reunited; conversely, the Whig Party split into sectional wings and it would never again wage a national campaign. 5. Pierce pursued an expansionist foreign policy to assist northern merchants, secured railroad rights in northern Mexico with the Gadsden Purchase, and tried to seize Cuba, issuing the Ostend Manifesto (1854). 6. Opposition to the manifesto forced Pierce to halt efforts to take Cuba, but it revived the northern fears of a â€Å"Slave Power† conspiracy. C. The Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Rise of New Parties 1. The Kansas-Nebraska Act, constructed by Democrat Stephen Douglas, divided the northern Louisiana Purchase into two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, and voided the Missouri Compromise line by opening the area to slavery through he principle of popular sovereignty. 2. The Kansas-Nebraska Act barely passed in 1854 through the use of patronage and persuasion by President Pierce, and proved to be the end of the Second Party System. 3. Antislavery northern Whigs and AntiNebraska Democrats formed a new party, the Republicans; the party stood for opposition to slavery and a celebr ation of the moral virtues of a society based on â€Å"the middling classes. † 4. The American, or â€Å"Know-Nothing† Party, had its origins in the anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic organizations of the 1840s. It hoped to unite native-born Protestants against the â€Å"alien menace† of Irish and German Catholics, prohibit further immigration, and institute literacy tests for voting. 5. In 1855 the Pierce administration recognized the territorial legislature in Lecompton, Kansas, which had adopted proslavery legislation. 6. Free-Soilers rejected the legitimacy of the territorial government; proslavery and antislavery sides turned to violence, including the â€Å"Pottawatomie massacre,† led by John Brown. D. Buchanan’s Failed Presidency 1. The Republican Party counted on anger over â€Å"Bleeding Kansas† to boost its fortunes and nominated Colonel James C. Fremont, a Free-Soiler, as its presidential candidate. 2. The American Party split into sectional factions, the northern faction endorsed Fremont and the southern faction nominated Millard Fillmore. 3. The Democrats reaffirmed their support for popular sovereignty and the KansasNebraska Act and nominated James Buchanan. 4. James Buchanan won, and the Republicans replaced the Whigs as the second major party. 5. Republicans had no support in the South, however; if they were to win in the next presidential election, it might prompt the southern states to withdraw from the Union. It appeared up to President Buchanan to devise a way of protecting Chapter 13: The Crisis of the Union, 1844–1860 193 free soil in the West and slavery in the South. 6. In Dred Scott v. Sandford (1856), the U. S. Supreme Court opined that a slave’s residence in a free state did not make him a free man and that African Americans were not citizens and could not sue in a federal court. 7. Chief Justice Taney declared the provisions of the Northwest Ordinance and the Missouri Compromise that prohibited slavery had never been constitutional, and that Congress could not give to territorial governments any powers that Congress itself did not possess. 8. Taney thereby endorsed Calhoun’s interpretation of popular sovereignty: only when settlers wrote a constitution and requested statehood could they prohibit slavery. 9. The Democrat-dominated Supreme Court had declared the Republicans’ antislavery platform to be unconstitutional; Republicans countered by accusing the Supreme Court and President Buchanan of participating in the â€Å"Slave Power† conspiracy. 10. In 1858 Buchanan recommended the admission of Kansas as a slave state; by pursuing a proslavery agenda—first with Dred Scott and then in Kansas—he had helped to split his party and the nation. IV. Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Triumph, 1858–1860 A. Lincoln’s Political Career 1. Abraham Lincoln came from an impoverished yeoman farming family in Illinois; in 1831 he rejected the farmer’s life and became a store clerk. 2. Lincoln was an ambitious man: he was admitted to the bar in 1837, married the more socially prominent Mary Todd in 1842, and served four terms as a Whig in the Illinois assembly. 3. In 1846 Lincoln won election to Congress, where he had to take a stand on the issue of slavery; he felt that slavery was unjust but did not believe that the federal government had the constitutional authority to tamper with it. . Lincoln argued that prohibiting the expansion of slavery, gradual emancipation, and the colonization of freed slaves were the only practical ways to address the issue. 5. Both abolitionists and proslavery activists derided Lincoln’s pragmatic policies, he lost his bid for reelection, and for a while he withdrew from politics in order to devote his time to law. 6. Lincoln returned to politics after the passage of Stephen Douglas’s Kansas-Nebraska Act; he attacked the doctrine of popular sovereignty and said he would leave slavery where it existed but not extend it into the territories. 7. Lincoln abandoned the Whig Party and joined the Republicans; he soon emerged as their leader in Illinois. 8. In Lincoln’s â€Å"House Divided† speech, he predicted a constitutional crisis over slavery. 9. In the 1858 duel for the U. S. Senate, Stephen Douglas declared his support for white supremacy, and Lincoln, put on the defensive by Douglas, advocated economic opportunity for blacks but not equal political rights. 10. Douglas’s â€Å"Freeport Doctrine† asserted that settlers could exclude slavery by not adopting local legislation to protect it; this upset proslavery advocates and abolitionists. 1. Douglas was elected to the Senate, but Lincoln had established a national reputation. B. The Union Under Siege 1. Southern Democrats divided into two groups: the â€Å"Moderates† (Southern Rights Democrats) pursued protection of slavery in the territories, and the â€Å"Radicals† actively promoted secession. 2. In October 1859 John Brown led a r aid that temporarily seized the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia; his purpose was to supply the arms for a slave rebellion and establish a separate African American state in the South. 3. Brown was charged with treason, sentenced to death, and hanged. He was a martyr to abolitionists, which horrified southerners. 4. In 1860 northern Democrats rejected Jefferson Davis’s program to protect slavery in the territories, so the delegates from eight southern states quit the meeting and nominated as their candidate John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. Northern and western delegates nominated Stephen Douglas. 5. The Republicans chose Lincoln as their candidate for his moderate position on slavery, his appealing egalitarian image, and his important Midwest political base. . The fourth candidate was John Bell, a former Tennessee Whig, who was the 194 Chapter 13: The Crisis of the Union, 1844–1860 nominee of the compromise-seeking Constitutional Union Party. 7. Lincoln received only 40 percent of the popular vote but won a majority in the electoral college by carrying every northern and western state except New Jersey; Douglas won electoral votes only in Missouri and N ew Jersey; Breckinridge captured every state in the Deep South as well as Delaware, Maryland, and North Carolina; John Bell carried the Upper South states. 8. The Republicans had united the Northeast, the Midwest, and the Far West behind free soil and had seized national power; to many southerners it seemed their constitutional order of slavery was an order now under siege. â€Å"free soil, free labor, free men,† which subsequently became the program of the Republican Party. (402) popular sovereignty The republican principle that ultimate power resides in the hands of the electorate. Popular sovereignty dictates that voters directly or indirectly (through their elected representatives) ratify the constitutions of their state and national governments and amendments to those fundamental laws. During the 1850s the U. S. Congress applied the principle to western lands by enacting legislation that gave residents there the authority to determine the status of slavery in their own territories. (406) personal-liberty laws Laws enacted in many northern states to protect free blacks and fugitive slaves from southern slave catchers. Early laws required a formal hearing before a local court. When these kinds of provisions were declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in Prigg v. Pennsylvania (1842), new laws prohibited state officials from helping slave catchers. (407) Key Terms Manifest Destiny A term coined by John L. O’Sullivan in 1845 to describe the idea that Euro-Americans were fated by God to settle the North American continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Adding geographical and secular dimensions to the Second Great Awakening, Manifest Destiny implied that the spread of American republican institutions and Protestant churches across the continent was part of God’s plan for the world. In the late nineteenth century, the focus of the policy expanded to include overseas expansion. (392) Great American Desert The name given to the drought-stricken Great Plains by Euro-Americans in the early nineteenth century. Believing the region was unfit for cultivation or agriculture, Congress designated the Great Plains as permanent Indian country in 1834. (392) conscience Whigs Whig politicians who opposed the Mexican War (1846–1848) on moral grounds. They maintained that the purpose of the war was to expand and perpetuate slavery. They feared that the addition of more slave states would ensure the South’s control of the national government and undermine a society of yeomen farmers and â€Å"free labor† in the North. (401) free-soil movement A political movement of the 1840s that opposed the expansion of slavery. Motivating its members—mostly white yeomen farmers—was their belief that slavery benefited â€Å"aristocratic men. † They wanted farm families to settle the western territories and install democratic republican values and institutions there. The short-lived Free-Soil Party (1848–1854) stood for Lecture Strategies 1. Write a lecture that explores the life and career of James K. Polk as a representative expansionist. Explain why he was willing to compromise on Oregon but went to war with Mexico. Discuss Polk’s leadership as a wartime president. Was he guilty of unnecessarily provoking war? Consider this action as a precedent for future presidents. Emphasize the initially overwhelming public support for the war. Describe the experiences of U. S. troops during the invasion of Mexico. Explain how changes in public opinion came about, resulting in Polk’s considerable decline in popularity by 1848. 2. Write a lecture that analyzes the historical nature of Manifest Destiny, showing how the areas intended for American expansion changed over time from including all of North America to including all the areas now part of the United States. Ask whether the westward movement was a matter of expansion or conquest. What was the impact of expansion on the environment and the Native American population? You might select California as a suitable case study. 3. Write a lecture that examines the War against Mexico from the perspective of the Mexican people. How did the actions of American citizens in the 1830s and 1840s look from Mexico’s point of view? Discuss the Mexican War from the perspec- Chapter 13: The Crisis of the Union, 1844–1860 195 tive of the Mexican government. What alternatives did it have? Raise the topic of Pierce’s actions with regard to Cuba, pointing out similarities in the United States’ actions toward Mexico. Discuss whether a style in diplomatic relations with nonindustrial countries had already been set. 4. Historians have long debated the causes of the Civil War. Write a lecture discussing the events of the 1850s, and explore how economics, the political structure and leadership of the time, and slavery caused the war. Explain how the increasingly industrial North competed with the agricultural, plantation South. Explore evidence of poor leadership among politicians ushed by fanatics in both the North and the South. Finally, discuss the debate over slavery as a cause of the war. 5. Write a lecture that focuses on the question of slavery in the national territories. As background, review the Missouri Compromise of 1820 and discuss congressional plans to extend it across the Mexican cession. Explain how territorial acquisition from the Mexican War forced the issue onto the national agenda. Expand on the arguments over the Wilmot Proviso. Explain the Compromise of 1850 and show how the generation of political leaders that included Clay was committed to compromise. Explain why the organization of Kansas and Nebraska into territories was necessary. Explore the effects of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, emphasizing the horror that â€Å"Bleeding Kansas† became for the nation. Conclude with the Dred Scott decision and its answer to the question of slavery in the territories. 6. Write a lecture that discusses American schemes to expand into Latin America in the 1850s. Explore President Pierce’s attempts to distract public attention from slavery by playing up those schemes. Explain southern interest in Latin America for the purpose of expanding plantation agriculture and slavery. Examine the filibuster movement through case studies on Nicaragua and Cuba. 7. Write a lecture that focuses on the Dred Scott case, covering Scott’s personal story and the impact of the case on the nation. Emphasize Buchanan’s connivance with the Supreme Court. Discuss Chief Justice Taney’s arguments that African Americans were not citizens and that neither Congress nor territorial governments could prohibit slavery in the territories. Discuss the constitutional validity of Taney’s points. Review Taney’s statements in light of his background as a Jacksonian Democrat. Explain why Abraham Lincoln believed that this case roved that the southerners’ goal was to make slavery legal throughout the country. 8. While southerners vilified abolitionists, many northerners lionized them. Write a lecture that discusses John Brown’s motives and actions, noting that most of his victims were not slaveholders. Explore evidence that Brown was a fanatic. Was his extremism justifiable in the defense of liberty? Explore the commitment among northern religious leaders to abolitionism. Discuss the practicality of Brown’s goals at Harpers Ferry. Explore Brown’s long-term effects on the North and the South. Reviewing the Text These questions are from the textbook and follow each main section of the narrative. They are provided in the Computerized Test Bank with suggested responses, for your convenience. Manifest Destiny: South and North (pp. 392–398) 1. Both elected officials and private individuals shaped America’s western policy. Which group was more important? Why? †¢ Elected officials, like James K. Polk and Sam Houston, were the most important because they worked in high political circles that controlled the economy, armed forces, and government systems that shaped the larger parameters of western policy. 2. How did western expansion become linked with the sectional conflict between the North and the South? Why, after two decades of hesitation, did politicians support territorial expansion in the 1840s? †¢ Western expansion created an ongoing split between North and South after the War of 1812 over the idea of whether or not new states should allow slavery. Slavery created two distinct economic systems in the United States between North and South. The Missouri Compromise of 1820, the Compromise of 1850, and the Kansas Nebraska Act of 1854 were all failed attempts at resolving the intersection of western expansion and the slavery issue. Politicians supported western expansion in part based on the ideology of Manifest Destiny congealing in the United States during the 1840s. The Texas Independence movement, fears of 196 Chapter 13: The Crisis of the Union, 1844–1860 European claims of the Pacific Northwest, and the discovery of gold in California combined to motivate politician s to create a continental nation with west coast ports to trade with Asia. Party system was unable to contain the debate, further destabilizing the compromise. 2. What did Stephen Douglas try to accomplish with the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854? Was that act any more successful than the Compromise of 1850? Explain your answer. †¢ Douglas wanted to resolve sectional disputes, politically organize the Louisiana Purchase lands into new territories, earn a fortune and higher political office by facilitating a transcontinental railroad from Chicago to San Francisco, and extinguish Native American land claims. †¢ The act was no more successful than the 1850 Compromise, as the North and South were morally polarized on the issue and now willing to use violence for their causes, and both sides were politically determined to remake the act and avoid any compromises. Its basis in popular sovereignty doomed the act because of the vagueness of the policy. 3. What were the main constitutional arguments advanced during the debate over slavery in the territories? Which of those arguments influenced Chief Justice Taney’s opinion in Dred Scott ? †¢ The main constitutional arguments were as follows: states have the right to secede from the Union; Congress has no right to regulate slavery in the territories; extend the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific Ocean; follow squatter or popular sovereignty; and Congress should restrict slavery within its existing boundaries and then extinguish it completely. Taney argued that Congress and territorial governments had no authority to prohibit slavery in a territory, and that slave owners could take their property into a territory and own it. Taney endorsed the principle of popular sovereignty: settlers could write a constitution, request statehood, and then decide if slavery would be legal. War, Ex pansion, and Slavery, 1846–1850 (pp. 398–406) 1. Why did President Polk go to war with Mexico? Why did the war become so divisive in Congress? Polk went to war with Mexico to obtain Mexican land for capitalist production, to create a continental nation with trading ports near Asia, and to fulfill a Christian and Manifest Destiny ideology. †¢ The war became divisive in Congress initially because of the Wilmot Proviso’s focus on banning slavery from any new territories acquired from Mexico. This act alienated southerners who wanted to extend slavery to new lands as a positive good and to fulfill popular sovereignty. 2. What issues were resolved by the Compromise of 1850? Who benefited more from its terms, the North or the South? Why? †¢ The Compromise of 1850 resolved the issue of whether or not to legally allow slavery in new lands acquired from Mexico. Results included California entering as a free state, a new Fugitive Slave Act, abolishing the slave trade (but not slavery) in the District of Columbia, organizing the remaining lands acquired from Mexico into the territories of New Mexico and Utah, and leaving the decision to allow or prohibit slavery to the local population (popular sovereignty). The South benefited more because slavery remained legal in the nation’s capital, the federal government would increase its use of force to return escaped slaves to their white masters, and the remaining lands taken from Mexico could decide for themselves if they wanted slavery. The North, however, could claim that it had put limitations on slavery, indicating a slow death to the institution over time. Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Triumph , 1858–1860 (pp. 414–419) 1. How did Lincoln’s position on slavery differ from that of Stephen Douglas? Lincoln believed that the Slave Power was dangerous and warned that the proslavery Supreme Court might soon declare that the Constitution does not permit a state to exclude slavery from its borders. Lincoln feared the spread of slavery to new states and territories made possible by the Dred Scott decision of 1857. The End of the Second Party System, 1850–1858 (pp. 406–414) 1. Why did the Compromise of 1850 fail? †¢ The Compromise failed because antislavery northerners refused to accept its provision for returning fugitive slaves and slavery’s erosion of free labor in the west. Proslavery southerners also plotted to extend slavery into the West, the Caribbean, and Central America. The Second Chapter 13: The Crisis of the Union, 1844–1860 197 †¢ Douglas argued strongly for white supremacy and popular sovereignty and advocated the Freeport Doctrine, which suggested that a territory’s residents could exclude slavery simply by not adopting a law to protect it. He also supported the Dred Scott decision. 2. Did the Republicans win the election of 1860, or did the Democrats lose it? Explain your answer. The Democrats lost the election because of their inability as a party to take a firm stance on the spread of slavery to new states and territories. Southern Democrats divided into two groups: moderates and radicals. Northern Democrats rejected both groups. Southern Democrats held their own party convention in 1860 and nominated the sitting Vice President Breckinridge; northern and Midwestern delegates met separately and nominated Stephen Douglas. both major political parties along sectional lines. The Whigs were unable to absorb these divisions and never again ran a national ticket. The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 further divided and ruined the party, sending many antislavery members into the Republican ranks. The Democratic Party barely survived but lost the election of 1860 to a dark-horse candidate from a new third party. 3. Some historians claim that the mistakes of a â€Å"Blundering Generation† of political leaders led, by 1860, to the imminent breakup of the Union. Do you agree with their assessment? Why or why not? †¢ Elected officials exert a strong force in shaping the fate of millions of average citizens through laws and policies passed in Congress. The policies and decisions of James Buchanan and Stephen Douglas are a case in point: Buchanan supported the southern proslavery position and was unwilling to use his office to further compromise between North and South. Convinced that a final proslavery d ecision would end the fighting in Kansas, Buchanan pressured several federal judges to vote in tandem with their southern colleagues in the Dred Scott case of 1856. He then added fuel to the fire by recommending that Kansas be admitted as a slave state under a proslavery Lecompton legislature, despite public and official misgivings over the legitimacy of the Lecompton government. Douglas wanted desperately to become president of the United States and earn wealth from being the spokesmen for a transcontinental railroad, so pushed the idea of popular sovereignty in the Kansas-Nebraska Act, resulting in violent outbreaks known as â€Å"Bleeding Kansas. † Chapter Writing Assignments These questions appear at the end of Chapter 13 in the textbook. They are provided in the Computerized Test Bank with suggested responses, for your convenience. 1. What were the links between the Mexican War of 1846–1848 and Abraham Lincoln’s election as president in 1860? Links included the emergence of Lincoln during the war as an antiwar Whig who championed free labor ideology. He later won election based on the Republican slogan of â€Å"free soil, free labor, freemen. † †¢ Lincoln was elected in 1860 because of an ongoing ideological split between southern slaveholding states and northern free states over the spread of slavery to new territories and states. The War with Mexico in 1848 inflamed this debate, which Lincoln condemned as a young Congressman, establishing himself as a strong voice for free labor. Lincoln’s election was made possible by a political vacuum created by the ideological differences between North and South over the spread of slavery. 2. When and why did the Second Party System of Whigs and Democrats collapse? †¢ The Second Party System collapsed when many southern Whigs refused to support General Winfield Scott as a presidential candidate in 1852 because many northern Whigs refused to support slavery. The conflict o ver slavery split Class Discussion Starters 1. What were the most important causes of the war with Mexico? Possible answers a. Southerners desired to expand slavery. b. Americans wished to gain more land for settlers. c. The majority of Americans believed in Manifest Destiny. d. American arrogance, including scorn for the Mexican government and the Catholic religion, and a belief in American superiority also contributed to the war. 198 Chapter 13: The Crisis of the Union, 1844–1860 e. Mexico’s weakness made Texas a temptation for opportunists. 2. Was the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo fair or unfair to Mexico? Possible answers a. Fair. After all, Mexico had lost the war, and the United States could have taken even more land. b. Fair. The United States paid Mexico $15 million for land it had conquered and could have just seized. c. Unfair. The treaty was forced on a government installed by the conquering American troops. d. Unfair. The payment did not equal the value of the lands seized, which constituted one-third of the area of Mexico. 3. How do you think the Californios viewed the influx of Americans in the 1840s and 1850s? Possible answers a. Some probably felt foreigners were invading them. b. Ranchers and merchants saw opportunities to sell their products to the newcomers. c. Many old Californios decided to ally themselves with the Americans by marrying their daughters to young American men. These sons-in-law helped the Californios adjust to American control. 4. How do you explain northern attempts to circumvent the Fugitive Slave Act with personal liberty laws and denunciations of states’ rights theory? Possible answers a. Northern abolitionists believed in a law higher than the Constitution. b. Northerners’ denunciations of states’ rights were hypocritical. They believed in what was best for the North at the moment. c. Northerners believed that southerners had used shady means to dominate the government and to get the Fugitive Slave Act passed. 5. How might the events of the 1850s have been different if Congress had extended the Missouri Compromise line instead of passing the KansasNebraska Act? Possible answers a. Slavery would never have been considered for Kansas, and bloodshed would not have occurred there. b. Southerners would have been far more assertive regarding expansion into Mexico and the Caribbean. c. The Republican Party might not have been formed. Even if it had been, it would not have had to focus so strongly on prohibiting slavery in the territories. 6. What could President Buchanan have done to prevent the Civil War? Possible answers a. Buchanan could have worked harder to keep Democratic Party leaders in the North and South together in 1860, in which case the Democrats probably would have won the presidency. b. Buchanan could have extended the Missouri Compromise line. c. The Civil War was inevitable, and there was nothing Buchanan could have done. 7. Which of the following was the most important cause of the Civil War: economic differences, political failures, or slavery? Possible answers a. Southern economic interests included low tariffs, low taxes, expansion into Mexico, and close ties to the British textile industry. Northern interests included high protective tariffs, taxes to build transportation networks, and the growth of the North’s manufacturing base. b. Democratic leaders such as Buchanan were inept, and Republican leaders had decided against making compromises that might have prevented the war. c. The issue of slavery continually forced politicians in the North and South into confrontations. d. Slavery was the economic difference and the ethical difference, and politics broke down trying to protect it. Chapter 13: The Crisis of the Union, 1844–1860 199 Classroom Activities 1. Reenact the Lincoln-Douglas debates in class by asking for volunteers for Lincoln and Douglas teams. Form two groups and instruct them to create a list of talking points for their respective side. As moderator you will ask a series of important questions related to the themes of the chapter. Go beyond the actual content of the debates and ask questions regarding modern times as well. 2. Bring in an image of Manifest Destiny, such as the painting American Progress by John Gast (1872). Place the image on an overhead and generate a discussion of American westward expansion based on an intensive viewing of the image. As usual, ask students what is not shown in the image, and why that’s important for understanding particular developments of U. S. history. †¢ Northern whites took up arms to halt the spread of slavery to new states and prevent tyranny by the planter class. Southern slaveholders and their supporters wanted to safeguard the civil liberties of the constitution and their own pocketbooks by making sure that slavery was legally allowed in new states. †¢ It was significant that both would fight in the Civil War because the later conflict was based on the same ideological disagreements first played out on the bloody fields of Kansas in 1855. The Civil War was an extension of Bloody Kansas. 3. Like most political or ideological doctrines, popular sovereignty only works well in certain circumstances. What were the conditions in Kansas between 1854 and 1860 that made it virtually unworkable? Can you see any parallels with the experiment of popular sovereignty in Iraq since 2004? Explain your answer. †¢ Popular sovereignty failed to work in Kansas because both sides flooded the state with new residents sternly committed to their cause, resulting in the creation of two state governments. The closeness of Missouri enabled proslavery men to cross the border, vote, and return home. Meanwhile, abolitionists sent rifles to antislavery men in Kansas. The debates between Democrats and Republicans in Congress over the KansasNebraska Act also gave hope to both sides by making the act appear to be doomed. †¢ The following parallels between Kansas in 1854 and Iraq since 2004 could be made: both witnessed civilian deaths, guerilla warfare, strong ideological differences between opposing sides, unsettled government structure, and political debate by Democrats and Republicans over how to resolve the problem. VO I C E S F R O M A B R OA D Oral History Exercise What are the oral stories of Native Americans regarding manifest destiny and American westward expansion between 1820 and 1865? As the instructor you can assign students to locate specific passages on the Internet and from texts in the school library. Students can then answer a series of questions that you prepare. Or you can bring into class a range of examples and use those to generate a discussion. This exercise also works well as a research paper. Working with Documents C O M PA R I N G A M E R I C A N VO I C E S Civil War in Kansas (p. 12) 1. What do these letters suggest about the character of the armed conflict in Kansas? Just how bloody was it? †¢ Based on ideological differences, the conflict was bitter and included standoffs and near-battles, with minimal communication with the opposing side. It was at times bloody, with abolitionists targeting pro-slavery advocates, and pro-slavery advocates targeting abolitionists. Violence between groups hostile to one another claimed about 200 lives in Kansas. 2. Why do you think Axalla Hoole and John Lawrie took up arms? Is it significant that both of them would go on to fight in the Civil War? Salomon de Rothschild: A French Banker Analyzes the Election of 1860 and the Threat of Secession (p. 418) 1. Do you agree with Salomon de Rothschild’s analysis of the motives of antislavery northern whites? †¢ One could agree with Rothschild’s argument that antislavery northern whites asserted humanitarian reasons and beliefs about the need for absolute equality in society. †¢ One could disagree about his assessment that the â€Å"real sentiment† of antislavery northern whites 200 Chapter 13: The Crisis of the Union, 1844–1860 was their jealousy over the extra labor accessible to the southern slave-owning aristocracy. 2. Is Rothschild correct about the role of tariffs in the secession crisis? What happened to tariffs after the nullification crisis of the 1830s (see Chapter 10)? †¢ Rothschild is correct. Northeastern states generated a significant portion of their economy from the industrial revolution, but needed strong protection from the importation of cheaper European industrial goods. This protection came in the form of high tariffs on imported goods. But the South produced large amounts of wealth from slave-grown cotton, and could easily purchase cheaper European goods directly without having to purchase the same goods at higher prices to assist northeastern states. The secession crisis stemmed in part from southern feelings of economic alienation by the North. †¢ After the nullification crisis of the 1830s, tariffs were reduced by a compromise measure between North and South initiated by President Andrew Jackson and Congress. By 1842 import taxes had reverted to 1816 levels. 3. From what you have read in the text, is Rothschild’s speculation that New York City will secede along with the South a realistic one? What argument does he make? Why was he wrong? †¢ It was not realistic that New York City would leave the union, though strong proslavery sentiment did exist in the Irish and Anglo American working-class community. Although, as Rothschild suggests, the city’s economy was tied closely with cotton exports from the South, it was also a bastion of free territory and free labor sentiment and was not dependent on the South for its economic growth. reedom, and to characterize the westward expansion as a progressive and beneficial exercise in human achievement. †¢ The significance of the â€Å"School Book† lies in its symbolism of the progressive uplift inherent to American values and westward expansion. Lady Liberty will use the book to educate not only inferior and unproductive Indians and Mexicans, but an entire continent in th e proper form of capitalist pursuit. 2. The painting has three horizontal planes—foreground, middle ground, and background—and each tells a separate story. What stages of social evolution are pictured in each plane? What symbols of progress does Gast employ? How is technology depicted? What role does it play in the artist’s depiction of progress? †¢ Foreground: Pioneers and miners come out first to chase away Indians and create trails and infrastructure for settlement, followed by farm families who subdue the land through capitalist production and build houses. †¢ Middle ground: Lady Liberty leads the way with a schoolbook while Indians flee before the face of industrial advancement in the form of trains and steamships. †¢ Background: Steamships and covered wagons and a pony express rider frame a brilliantly lighted sky. Symbols of progress: Farmers plow land and build houses, there is a stagecoach mail system, and the industrial revolution is depicted in the form of trains, steamships, and telegraph. Lady Liberty holds a book symbolizing the enlightenment of formal education. †¢ Technology serves as the selling point or justification for the progressive character of A merican westward expansion: It brings people, democracy, and capitalist production to undeveloped people and lands. 3. Gast also has divided the painting into two vertical planes. What do you think the transition from lightness to darkness symbolizes? Darkness symbolizes the undeveloped and savage nature of the West that is being tamed and brought into capitalist production through the efforts of Lady Liberty and her technology. U. S. western expansion is characterized as progressive in the painting through the use of brilliant sunlight, for an almost spiritual effect. Lady Liberty emerges from the light to bring advancement to the dark West. Reading American Pictures Visualizing â€Å"Manifest Destiny† (p. 396) 1. The painting is an allegory: The artist uses symbols to depict America’s expansion to the Pacific. The central symbol is the goddess Liberty; she floats westward, her forehead emblazoned with the â€Å"Star of Empire. † Why do you think Gast chose Liberty to lead the republic to the West? What is the significance of the â€Å"School Book† in her left hand? †¢ Gast chose Liberty for several reasons: As a symbol of American democracy enlightening Indian savages, as part of an ongoing use of white women as symbols of American democracy and Chapter 13: The Crisis of the Union, 1844–1860 201 4. In the background on the far right stands New York City, with the great Brooklyn Bridge (which was still being built in 1872) spanning the East River. Far off to the left you can see the Pacific Ocean. Why did Gast include these elements in the painting? †¢ Gast included references to both coasts to emphasize the continental scope of the new United States and the importance of commerce and urban growth to develop the western portion of the nation. †¢ Gold, Greed, and Genocide (2002, Project Underground, 30 minutes) Produced by the nonprofit group Project Underground, this hard-hitting documentary traces the impact of the gold rush on the Indians and the environment of California to the present day. Literature †¢ Harriet Beecher Stowe, Uncle Tom’s Cabin (New York: Signet Classics, 1981) One of the most important books of the nineteenth century, Uncle Tom’s Cabin is essential for helping students to understand the abolitionist viewpoint and the causes of the Civil War. †¢ Richard Henry Dana, Two Years Before the Mast (New York: Signet Classics, 2000) A first-hand account by a Yankee in Mexican California. Electronic Media Web Sites †¢ â€Å"Uncle Tom’s Cabin and American Culture: A Multi-Media Archive† http://jefferson. illage. virginia. edu/utc/ An extremely rich site that places the novel in its literary and cultural context. See also â€Å"Harriet Beecher Stowe and Uncle Tom’s Cabin† at http://xroads. virginia. edu/~MA97/riedy/hbs . html †¢ The California Gold Rush www. museumca. org/goldrush This site is based on exhibits originating at the Oakland Museum, and is one of the best locations for Gold Rush art and othe r visual documents. †¢ The Lincoln-Douglas Debates of 1858 http://www. nps. gov/archive/liho/debates. tm This National Park Service site provides a map of Illinois indicating where the debates occurred, and contains links to the text of the debates. Additional Bedford/St. Martin’s Resources for Chapter 13 FOR INSTRUCTORS Transparencies The following maps and images from Chapter 13 are available as full-color acetates: †¢ War News from Mexico, 1848 †¢ Map 13. 1 American Settlements and the Texas War of Independence †¢ Map 13. 2 Territorial Conflict in Oregon, 1819– 1846 †¢ Map 13. 3 Routes to the West, 1835–1860 †¢ American Progress, John Gast †¢ Map 13. The Mexican War, 1846–1848 †¢ Map 13. 5 The Mexican Cession, 1848 †¢ Map 13. 6 The California Gold Rush, 1849–1857 †¢ Map 13. 7 The Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 †¢ Map 13. 8 Political Realignment, 1848–1860 Films †¢ U. S. -Mexican War: 1846–1848 (2000, PBS documentary, 4 hours) The documentary examines the cause, development, and aftermath of the conflict. A companion Web site (www. pbs. org/kera/ usmexicanwar/index_flash. html) views the war from both American and Mexican perspectives and draws on the expertise of historians from both countries. A section for educators provides lesson plans, a timeline, primary source materials, and other links. †¢ The West (2000, PBS documentary, 6 hours) Directed by Ken Burns and Stephen Ives, the documentary also has an accompanying and useful Web site at www. pbs. org/weta/thewest/. Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM The following maps, figures, and images from Chapter 13, as well as a chapter outline, are available on disc in both PowerPoint and jpeg formats: †¢ Map 13. 1 American Settlements and the Texas War of Independence †¢ Map 13. 2 Territorial Conflict in Oregon, 1819– 1846 02 Chapter 13: The Crisis of the Union, 1844–1860 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Map 13. 3 Routes to the West, 1835–1860 Map 13. 4 The Mexican War, 1846–1848 Map 13. 5 The Mexican Cession, 1848 Map 13. 6 The California Gold Rush, 1849–1857 Map 13. 7 The Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 Map 13. 8 Political Realignment, 1848–1860 War News from Mexico, 1848 â€Å"The Father of Texas† Assault on the Alamo American Progress, John Gast Using the Bedford Series with America’s History, Sixth Edition Available online at bedfordstmartins. om/usingseries, this guide offers practical suggestions for incorporating volumes from the Bedford Series in History and Culture into the U. S. History Survey. Relevant titles for Chapter 13 include †¢ NARRATIVE OF THE LIFE OF FREDERICK DOUGLASS, AN AMERICAN SLAVE, WRITTEN BY HIMSELF, Second Edition, Edited with an Introduction by David W. Blight, Yale University †¢ The Japanese Discovery of America: A Brief History with Documents, by Peter Duus, Stanford University †¢ THE CONFESSIONS OF NAT TURNER and Related Documents, Edited with an Introduction by Kenneth S. Greenburg, Suffolk University †¢ Defending Slavery: Proslavery Thought in the Old South, A Brief History with Documents, by Paul Finkelman, Albany Law School †¢ DRED SCOTT V. SANDFORD: A Brief History with Documents, by Paul Finkelman, Albany Law School FOR STUDENTS 5. Salmon P. Chase, Defining the Constitutional Limits of Slavery (1850) 6. John C. Calhoun, A Discourse on the Constitution (1850) 7. Frederick Grimke, The Right of Secession (1856) 8. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 9. Fulfilling a Constitutional Duty with Alacrity (1850) 10. Opposing Accounts of the Rescue of a Fugitive (1851) 11. Charles Sumner, The Crime Against Kansas (1856) 12. The Dred Scott Decision (1857) 13. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates (1858) 14. The Trial of John Brown (1859) 15. John A. Copeland, Jr. , Letter to His Parents (1859) Online Study Guide at bedfordstmartins. com/henretta The Online Study Guide helps students synthesize the material from the text as well as practice the skills historians use to make sense of the past. The following map, visual, and documents activities are available for Chapter 13: Map Activity Map 13. 7 The Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 Visual Activity †¢ Reading American Pictures: Visualizing â€Å"Manifest Destiny† Reading Historical Documents Activities †¢ Comparing American Voices: Civil Warfare in Kansas †¢ Voices From Abroad: Salomon de Rothschild: A French Baker Analyzes the Implications of the Election of 1860 and the Threat of Secession Documents to Accompany A merica’s History The following documents and illustrations are available in Chapter 13 of the companion reader by Melvin Yazawa, University of New Mexico: 1. John L. O’Sullivan, Texas, California, and Manifest Destiny (1845) 2. Thomas Oliver Larkin, The Importance of California (1845) 3. The Great Prize Fight (1844) 4. Carlos Maria de Bustamante, The American Invasion of Mexico (1847) Critical Thinking Modules at bedfordstmartins. com/historymodules These online modules invite students to interpret maps, audio, visual, and textual sources centered on events covered in the U. S. history survey. Relevant modules for Chapter 13 include †¢ The Rise of Sectional Politics, 1848–1860